Pastoralism and Subsistence Methods

Pastoralism is the ancient method of subsistence farming that substantially relies on the raising and tending of domestic animals. Pastoralism takes place or has taken place in most parts of the world, in climates that range from arid desert to arctic tundra and from forested lowlands to mountain pastures. The ways that pastoralists tend their flocks, then, vary widely depending on farmer flexibility, as well as the regional geographic, ecological, and social conditions. So, to a scientific researcher, pastoralism in its most basic meaning is simply stock keeping. But the study of pastoralists includes the effects stock keeping has on the societies, economies, and lifeways of the groups that keep stock and attach high cultural importance to the animals themselves. Stock Animal Origins Archaeological studies show that the earliest domesticated stock animals—sheep, goats, and pigs—were domesticated about the same time, about 10,000 years ago, in Western Asia. Cattle were first domesticated in the eastern Sahara desert about the same time, and other animals were domesticated later at different times in different areas. Animal domestication as a process still continues: ostriches, today an animal raised by pastoralists, were first domesticated in the mid-19th century. There are many different herded animals, which vary by the place of origin. Africa: cattle, donkeys, ostrichMiddle East: camels, sheep, goats, pigs, ducks, beesCentral Asia: camels, horses, cattle, sheepTibetan Plateau: yaksAndean Highlands: llama, alpaca, guinea pig, ducksCircumpolar arctic: reindeerSoutheast Asia, China, and India: camels, water buffalo, zebu, bantengNorth America: bees, turkeys Why Domesticate? Scholars believe that stock raising arose first when humans moved their domestic stock into drier lands distant from cultivated fields: but pastoralism was not and never has been a static process. Successful farmers adapt their processes to changing circumstances, such as environmental change, population density, and the spread of diseases. Social and technological developments such as road construction and transportation affect processes of production, storage, and distribution. There is a multitude of reasons that people raise stock. Live animals are kept for their blood, milk, and wool, for their dung as fuel and fertilizer, and as transportation and draft animals. They are also food storage, fed fodder that is inedible by humans to create human-edible food, and once slaughtered, they provide skins, sinew, fur, meat, hooves, and bones for a range of purposes from clothing to tools to house construction. Further, stock animals are units of exchange: they can be sold, given as gifts or bride-wealth, or sacrificed for feasting or the general community welfare. Variations on a Theme Thus, the term pastoralism includes many different animals in many different environments. In order to better study stock-tending, anthropologists have tried to categorize pastoralism in a number of ways. One way to look at pastoralism is a set of continuums following several threads: specialization, economy, technology and social changes, and mobility. Some farming systems are highly specialized—they only raise one type of animal—others are highly diversified systems which combine animal husbandry with crop production, hunting, foraging, fishing and trade into a single domestic economy. Some farmers raise animals solely for their own subsistence needs, others produce solely to be marketed to others. Some farmers are helped or hindered by technological or social changes such as the construction of road networks and reliable transportation; the presence of a temporary labor force can also affect pastoralist economies. Pastoralist people often adjust the size of their families to provide that labor force; or adjust the size of their stock to reflect their available labor. Transhumance and Nomads A major study area in pastoralism is another continuum, called transhumance  when human societies move their stock from place to place. At its most basic, some pastoralists move their herds seasonally from pasture to pasture; while others always keep them in a pen and provide them forage. Some are full-time nomads. Nomadism—when farmers move their stock far enough distances to require moving their own houses—is another continuum which is used to measure pastoralism. Semi-nomadic pastoralism is when farmers maintain a permanent home base where old people and tiny children and their caregivers live; full-time nomads move their entire family, clan, or even community as the demands of the animals require. Environmental Demands Pastoralists are found in a wide range of environments, including plains, desert, tundra, and mountains. In the Andes mountains of South America, for example, pastoralists move their flocks of llamas and alpacas between upland and lowland pastures, to escape extremes of temperature and precipitation. Some pastoralists are involved in trade networks: camels were used in the famous Silk Road to move a wide variety of goods across vast reaches of central Asia; llamas and alpacas played a crucial role in the Inca Road system. Identifying Pastoralism in Archaeological Sites Finding archaeological evidence for pastoralist activities is a bit tricky, and as you might guess, varies with the type of pastoralism being studied. Archaeological remains of structures such as pens on farmsteads and at way stations on roadways have been used effectively. The presence of game management equipment, such as horse bits, reins, shoes, and saddles are also clues. Animal fat residues—lipids and alkanoic acids of milk fat—are found on potsherds and provide evidence of dairying activities. Environmental aspects of archaeological sites have been used as supporting evidence, such as changes in pollen over time, which show what types of plants are growing in a region; and the presence of detritivores (mites or other insects that feed on animal dung). Animal skeletons provide a wealth of information: bit wear on teeth, wear on hooves from horseshoes, morphological changes on animal bodies, and domestic herd demography. Pastoralists tend to keep female animals only as long as they reproduce, so pastoralist sites typically have more young female animals than older ones. DNA studies have tracked degrees of genetic difference among herds and domestic lineages. Sources Chepstow-Lusty AJ. 2011. Agro-pastoralism and social change in the Cuzco heartland of Peru: a brief history using environmental proxies. Antiquity 85(328):570-582.Galaty JG. 2015. Pastoralism in Anthropology. International Encyclopedia of the Social Behavioral Sciences (Second Edition). Oxford: Elsevier. p 577-583.Honeychurch W. 2016. The Archaeology of Pastoral Nomadism. Annual Review of Anthropology 45(1):341-359.Linseele V. 2010. Did Specialized Pastoralism Develop Differently in Africa than in the Near East? An Example from the West African Sahel. Journal of World Prehistory 23(2):43-77.Little MA. 2015. Chapter 24 - Pastoralism. Basics in Human Evolution. Boston: Academic Press. p 337-347.Montero RG, Mathieu J, and Singh C. 2009. Mountain Pastoralism 1500-2000: An Introduction. Nomadic Peoples 13:1-16.Nielsen AE. 2009. Pastoralism and the Non-Pastoral World in the Late Pre-Columbian History of the Southern Andes (10001535). Nomadic Peoples 13:17-35.

Cmgt/554 Week 2 Essay example - 1456 Words

Patton-Fuller Community Hospital IT Department Patton-Fuller Community Hospital IT Department In order for an organization to be able to have an efficient and successful organization the proper Information Technology system (IT) must be in place, this document will demonstrate what system is in place to make sure system is running successfully. Patton-Fuller Community Hospital is a prominent hospital that is known for specializing in pharmacy, radiology, surgery, and physical therapy. This community hospital has numerous departments and each has a different IT need, so understanding which programs will work and be compatible is their major objective. The patients of Patton-Fuller Hospital are accustomed to the quality service†¦show more content†¦The Patton-Fuller Community Hospital runs this type of photo technology to be able to determine what the situation is with patients that are requiring images to determine the problem that the patient is facing (Apollo Group, 2011). Patton-Fuller Community Hospital uses layers 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 of the OSI model. The OSI model is broken into seven layers that play a major important role in how the model functions on a functioning level. Patton-Fuller Hospital uses certain layers of the model, below is the function of each layer: Layer 1: Physical - This is the level of the actual hardware. It defines the physical characteristics of the network such as connections, voltage levels and timing. Layer 3: Network - The way that the data will be sent to the recipient device is determined in this layer. Logical protocols, routing and addressing are handled here. Layer 4: Transport - This layer maintains flow control of data and provides for error checking and recovery of data between the devices. Layer 5: Session - Layer 5 establishes, maintains and ends communication with the receiving device. Layer 6: Presentation - Layer 6 takes the data provided by the Application layer and converts it into a standard format that the other layers can understand. Layer 7: A pplication - This is the layer thatShow MoreRelatedCmgt 554 Entire Course ( Week 1-6 ) Complete Course1596 Words   |  7 PagesCMGT 554 Entire Course ( Week 1-6 ) Complete Course http://uopguides.com/downloads/cmgt-554-entire-course-week-1-6-complete-course/ Visit Website For More Tutorials : http://uopguides.com Email Us for Any Question or More Final Exams at : Uopguides@gmail.com CMGT 554 Week 1 DQ 1 Almost all IT administrators understand the significant part which IT performs in business these days. But, some people in the business community don’t always know the requirement for IT involvement in day-to-dayRead MoreCmgt 554 Week4 Essay1623 Words   |  7 PagesTeam A- Week 4 Assignment – Patton-Fuller Community Hospital University of Phoenix CMGT 554 Patton-Fuller Community Hospital Information systems assist Patton-Fuller Community Hospital in setting and accomplishing it goals of improving and collaborating interdepartmentally with management, employees, staff, and customers (Apollo Group, Inc, 2013). Proficient information systems objectives are to provide effective and efficient services; add profit and cost-avoidance; and social responsibilityRead MoreEssay on Patton- Fuller Community Hospital Networking Project1796 Words   |  8 PagesWeek Three Individual Paper Patton- Fuller Community Hospital Networking Project CMGT 554/IT Infrastruct In week’s three individual dissection of Patton-Fuller Community Hospital Networking Department, I will discuss three topics that will help with a better understanding of the Hospital’s Networking Department. During the first topic, a complete analysis will be completed on the network systems in use. While covering the second topic, discussion on what standards may be missing from the Hospital’s

Staff Management at J&J Furnishings-Free-Samples for Students

Question: Discuss about the Staff Management at JJ Furnishings Limited. Answer: Introduction: The aim of the paper is to conduct analysis of project leadership management skills against the backdrop of the given case study. The study takes JJ Furnishings Limited as the example and considers the three goals of the company, which form the crux of the assignment. The first goal was to attain environment friendly methods of operations to benefit the stakeholders. The second goal was to attain new heights in business by up gradation of factors technology with aim of leveraging productivity. The third aim is to expand the present manufacturing capabilities to meet the growing demands for JJs furniture products (jj-furniture.com, 2017). The company is setting project team to achieve its goals. The various sections would revolve around talent acquisition and management. The paper particularly delves into strategies to manage the staff and lead them towards attainment of the organisational goals. Staff management teams The following staff management plan would be used by JJ Furnishing Limited to manage the new projects: Maintaining relationship between staff members of a project team: The project managers should apply the strategy of maintaining healthy relationship with the staff members in his team. He should encourage the team members to collaborate in the formation of strategies to achieve targets. He should ensure that the senior and the junior employees cooperate with each other. The project manager should ensure that all the team members receive respect and equal opportunity to perform irrespective of their cultural background. The basis of the task division among the team members should be their educational qualification and experiences. Thus, diversity management and maintaining healthy relationship with the employees would enable the project to manage their staffs and lead them towards achievement of the target (Burke, 2013). Empowerment of employees: Empowerment of employees would help the project managers to manage the project teams more efficiently. This is because the employees would be able to assist the managers to form strategies more efficiently and take decisions. The managers should form plans to empower their employees to increase the eligibility of their subordinates (Mir Pinnington, 2014). They should provide them with trainings and mentor them to enhance their skills and knowledge. Thus, empowering employees would help the managers to manage the teams with the cooperation and active participation of their subordinates in decision-making. Leverage technology: The project managers should use modern technology like Liquid Planner which would allow them to manage various aspects of the projects like deadlines, buying materials and managing the productivity of teammates. The modern software allow the project managers to manage their staff by accessing them over smart phones even when they are on leave or working from home (Schwalbe, 2015) References: Burke, R. (2013). Project management: planning and control techniques. New Jersey, USA. Mir, F. A., Pinnington, A. H. (2014). Exploring the value of project management: linking project management performance and project success. International journal of project management, 32(2), 202-217. Schwalbe, K. (2015). Information technology project management. Cengage Learning. J J Furniture. (2017). J J Furniture. Retrieved 19 November 2017, from https://www.jj-furniture.com/stores